American Music of the New Millennium

Music creates invigorating environments and atmospheres in nightclubs, homes, churches, picnics, cars and everywhere else on this planet. Music industry attracts creative, imaginative minds who has the capability of developing ideas that fascinates everyone. Many years ago, music consisted of one category, classical. From classical, Jazz, Blues, Ragtime, Rock and Roll, Pop, Hip-Hop were invented. The music bringing in the most money are the music that stays up with the current trends. This type of music has a bigger audience. Today, we have several music types that can be divided into popular classifications.Updated audio technology enhances sounds of notes played, chord progressions and vocal techniques more distinctively. Music appealing to popular cultures consistently changes with current trends. Today’s popular music categories appealing to young generations, staying with current trends can be classified as Hip-Hop or Rap, Pop, or progressive Rhythm and Blues. Popular art ists such as Kayne West, Hurricane Chris and 50 cent play music classified as Hip-Hop or Rap. Jazz, Rock and Roll, mixed with international African Drumming and Latino cultures shaped the personality of Hip-Hop.Hip-Hops tonality is formed by constant heavily accented beats and strong notes. The constant backbeat defining Rock and Roll carried over to Hip-Hop. Hip-Hop arranges the instruments to put stronger emphases on the backbeat, creating an atmosphere of invigoration and energy. Teen music audiences are vibrant and energetic. â€Å"We could say that music perception is measured and studied as though it is the ability to perceive features of music† (Dorrel, 2006). Heavy accents on instrumentation intrigue young music audiences. Energetic rhythms, provided by percussion are youth oriented, and are easily perceived by young people.Hip-Hop in the future may become faster, have many more rhythms playing simultaneously, and become more integrated with other nations. The number of notes written into Hip-Hop’s musical scores will increase. There is a new dance trend popularized by Hip-Hop (and Madonna) called Krumping. Hip-Hop music steadily influences development of new dance styles, both in the studios and in the nightclubs. Other artists of another division of the pop music classification are Fergie, Rihanna and Gwen Stefani. Pop music sometimes follows the same time signatures as Hip-Hop.The duration of the accents, frequency’s and pitches are comparable to Hip-Hops style. Identical Hip-Hop sheet music may be used for pop. The emphases on the instruments defines the difference. Pop artists singing voices are more accented, above the percussion. The audible focus emphasize different instruments. Electronic instruments (Keyboard, Organ) are emphasized while percussions provide the steady ongoing pulse. As time progresses, all popular music note’s and rhythms speed and frequency increase. For current music trends to stay on top of the music field, they must constantly create new themes, new overall tonality’s.One of the changes inevitably coming along is the ways music is brought to us. Music will be available through radios, devices requiring service contracts without downloadable device and concert shows. Artists will start touring more or only agreeing to make albums requiring a service contract. There will be more competition to create stunning shows. The artists will have to â€Å"make it (concert) memorable. Give them ups and downs, highs and lows, mix the comfortable with the unexpected† (Elmy, 2003). In the new millennium, pop bands may be putting shows together with rap bands.The final classification of music is Rhythm and Blues. Some Rhythm and Blues singers are Beyonce, Janet Jackson and Ciara. The melody and electronic instruments are emphasized in R&B. Musical theatre, Jazz and Big Band influenced R&B. Dancing, and types of dancing defined and characterized Musical Theatre, Jazz, Big Ba nd. In today’s R&B videos, artists uses distinctive dance styles. In Rihanna’s video, Umbrella (also R&B), you can see the Fosse technique in her solo dancing, specifically from All That Jazz. Future Rhythm and Blues will continue return to its roots from Big Band and Jazz, which was played in musical theatres.Popular music, is music appealing to the average ages from children to late twenties. Children are never to young to become a fan of popular music produced by the music industry. Some two year olds love Hurricane Chris and KISS. The artists appealing to younger generations may be any age. Record label’s executives are conducting professional music business to appeal to younger people. The music trends constantly change, continuously inventing ways to hold audiences with short attention spans. If music shows are designed to hold the attention of ADD five years old, it will certainly hold adult audiences.When applying for an executive position, the straightl aced interview rules no longer apply. â€Å"It’s no accident labels are hiring producers. These guys have the sense to stay on top of market changes and deliver sales. You’ve definitely gotta hire someone who’s going to bring a little more content to what people are doing nowadays, because if you don’t, you’re going to get pushed out of the race† (Marshall, 2007). Future of music will bring more breakthrough techniques including improvement of vocal quality, musical arrangements of songs, and recording technology. Artists are now refusing to make albums.Madonna recently left her lifetime record label, Warner Brothers because Live Nation promotes concert tours. These live performances will likely eliminate any music sales to individuals. Legitimate businesses are going to be the primary purchasers of hard copies of music. Today, only dance studios with 2000 students purchase the required licenses to play and use copyrighted music. The smaller dance studios do not abide with these laws. Artists advantage to producing music is currently getting eliminated. The reality shows, American Idol, Dancing With the Stars can be very misleading.Why is Paula Abdul no longer singing and making albums, since she is a bridge to music contracts? Younger people may lack money to purchase all favorite tunes. However, the cost of getting music to them costs a small fortune. The popular music can currently be divided into three classifications. The most creative people combined Rhythm and Blues coming from classic musical theatre, jazz and blues originating in 1920’s and marketed current popular cultures. Notes; Elmy, T. (2003, May). Playing Live: How To Structure A Kick-Ass Set. Canadian Musician, 25(3), 60. Retrieved November 17, 2007,from Academic Search Complete database. http://search. ebscohost. com/login. aspx? direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10303241&site=ehost-live Phillip Dorrel, (2006 October 15) Music Perception: What Is It That We Perceive When We Perceive Music? Retrieved November 17, 2007 http://www. 1729. com/blog/MusicPerception. html Marshall, S. (2007, February 26). MUSIC LABELS' NEW LEADERS. Crain's New York Business, 23(9), 1-8. Retrieved November 17, 2007, from Regional Business News database. http://search. ebscohost. com/login. aspx? direct=true&db=bwh&AN=24351670&site=ehost-live

Rules of Interpretation

A  statute  is a formal written enactment of a  legislative  authority that governs a  state,  city, or  county. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy. Statutory interpretation  is the process by which courts interpret and apply  legislation. Some amount of interpretation is always necessary when a case involves a  statute. Sometimes the words of a statute have a plain and straightforward meaning. But in many cases, there is some  ambiguity  or vagueness  in the words of the statute that must be resolved by the judge.To find the meanings of statutes, judges use various tools and methods of statutory interpretation, including rules of interpretation. The five (5) main rules of statutory interpretation are: 1. The Context Rule When the context rule is used to interpret an act it is understood with reference to the words which are in immediate connection to it. This can be expressed by the Latin maximum â€Å"noscitur a sociisâ⠂¬  which means â€Å"a word may be known by the company it keeps† when translated.The context rule is a more accurate way of interpreting a statute because in each rule we tend to find out the meaning of a statute by learning about the context in which it was written. When a word stand alone it may have one specific definition however when one word is used in more than one context it may have a variety of different meanings. When using the context rule one should consult the definition section of the statute and the Interpretation Act. 2.Interpretation in the Light of Policy ( The Fringe Meaning) Courts often announce that that they are trying to discover the intention of the legislature when interpreting statutes. If the courts find it difficult to decide whether a particular situation falls within a statute or not, the situation was probably unforeseen by the legislature. In this case the members of parliament would be just as confused as the judges. When statutes are con structed the maker of the document may not mean to include that which the court is concerned to ascertain, but they have said. . The Mischief Rule When the mischief rule is applied the act or document is to be constructed to suppress mischief and advance the remedy. In applying the rule, the court is essentially asking what was the â€Å"mischief† that the previous law did not cover? The Mischief Rule is of narrower application than the  golden rule  or the  literal  rule in the sense that it can only be used to interpret a statute and only when the statute was passed to remedy a defect in the common law.The way in which the mischief rule can produce more sensible outcomes than those that would result if the literal rule were applied is illustrated by the ruling in  Smith v Hughes  (1960). It was a crime for prostitutes to â€Å"loiter or solicit in the street for the purposes of prostitution†. The defendants were calling to men in the street from balconies and tapping on windows. They claimed they were not guilty as they were not in the â€Å"street. † The judge applied the mischief rule to come to the conclusion that they were guilty as the intention of the Act was to cover the mischief of harassment from prostitutes. . The Literal Rule Literal rule states that if the words in an act are precise and unambiguous then they should be used in their natural and ordinary sense. The court can not extend the statute to a case outside of its terms bit with its purpose. Neither can it leave out the case that the statutes literally include thought it should not. If any doubt arises then the circumstances behind the enactment of the act are taken into consideration. Thus if the words are clear in themselves then they are to be put into effect. 5.The Golden Rule In golden rule, the meaning of the words are modified in order to avoid repugnance, inconsistency or absurdity. This rule applies in a few cases. In the first case the rule allows the court to prefer a sensible meaning, which would be the most obvious, to an absurd one even though both are possible. In another case this rule will only be used if the words are absolutely incapable of coinciding with the obvious intention of the statute. It is only where the words will avoid an unreasonable result that they must prevail.

What is utilitarianism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

What is utilitarianism - Essay Example Although, Williams fails to provide an alternative moral hypothesis, the philosopher successfully investigated how utilitarianism and its backers root for untenable beliefs about what rational actions entail. On the other hand, Brandt emphasizes that when evaluating the repercussions of the value of an ethical belief, the society should go beyond mere appraisal of the gains of following set etiquettes and instead embrace selective fulfillment of the requirements. This can only be achieved by leveraging the benefits and negative consequences of such rules: for instance, one should appreciate remorse and other dangers linked to interiorizing fundamental prohibitions in the society. This paper analyzes the ethical arguments presented in â€Å"A Critique of Utilitarianism† by Williams and â€Å"Some Merits of One Form of Rule Utilitarianism,† by Bernard Brandt in their respective articles, in order to establish whose utilitarian philosophy is more effective in today’ s society. Overview of the philosophers’ perceptions Williams provides an exceptional theory, which defines positive action, based on whether it results in a favorable situation triggers a fundamental conflict between an individual’s ethical capacities and that supposedly right action. It is notable that in an effort to employ utilitarianism in balancing and sustaining practicality as an ethical theory, Williams points out the surreptitious incorporation of moral feelings that are not purely utilitarian. For meticulous observation, this confusion often triggers the realization of the weaknesses of a consequentialist approach to understanding satisfactory morality and leadership. By taking into consideration an individual’s ethical inclinations only when they are in tandem with utility implies that there could be a more profound failure to appreciate that such beliefs are often exhibited by the agent’s individual projects and obligations. Therefore, to realize an objective threshold of moral practices, utilitarianism eventually soils an individual’s honor by turning right action immaterial to those initiatives and obligations. Whereas Williams (606-622) perceives that the grounds for the effectiveness of consequentialist moral revolve around to immoral thoughts about moral impacts of the eventualities, Brandt suggests morality is based on moral actions. Brandt argument on utilitarianism contradicts Williams, especially on his suggestion that that the latter’s jump into the impacts of actions occasions the weakening of the individual’s moral standing (Brandt 590-592). In view of this, Williams’ perception of ‘commitment’ as dictated by the party confronted by an ethical dilemma should be based on the actions and not just the consequences. Additionally, in case there is need to maintain honor between individual behavior and minor order projects, it is important to recognize the fact that modern moral theories such as the ones based on consequentialist ideology, this cannot be embedded to individual actions. It is, however, important to recognize that both Williams and Brandt philosophies on ethical actions imply that a certain application is greatly shaped by the actions of an autonomous mor al cause. Significance of the ethical goals and actions Williams (607-615) acknowledges that individuals in the modern world are unaware of the connection between human objectives and behavior. Further, the theorist’s argument brings into focus some fundamental issues such as whether individuals take steps for the sole aim of accomplishing particular objectives. And if so, after realizing an intended objective, it is unclear whether the outcome may inspire the pursuing other successive goals in life, because in general, goals in life are

The Economic Impacts within the Oil and Natural Gas Industries Research Paper

The Economic Impacts within the Oil and Natural Gas Industries - Research Paper Example it has employed numerous Americans to participate in the exploration of new oil fields, production, processing, supply, and marketing of the oil and natural gas. It also buys the intermediate raw materials from the U.S. producers. This has led to industrial development, thus, leading to creation of more jobs. America is in the middle of an oil and natural gas revolution, which has the potential of significantly affecting the environment, national security and most importantly the economy. It is now able to tap into enormous stores of oil and natural gas locked in shale deposits around the country, thanks to technology breakthroughs. These include horizontal drilling, hydraulic fracturing also referred to as fracking and seismic imaging. These new possibilities will enable the country to replace coal as a source of energy with cleaner and environmental friendly natural gas (Friedman, 2012). The shale oil and natural gas boom however has been a mixed blessing for the independent oil an d gas firms. While technology breakthroughs have helped to open up new vast areas for exploration and production, the natural gas prices have been on the lower side creating challenges for the production companies. This is because, these companies are trying to justify the cost of production but the lower gas prices are making it harder for them. Current gas prices only provide these companies with marginal profit possibility at best considering the high production costs. While crude oil prices keep rising, standing currently at $93 per barrel, prices for natural gas remain stuck at $2.96 per a thousand cubic feet (Contagion oil & gas, 2010). Economists hope that natural gas will substitute crude oil considering gas is cheaper relative to energy produced. This however, is not likely to happen with production companies seeking to shift from production of natural gas to crude oil to correct the financial imbalance (Contagion oil & gas, 2010). According to an article published in finan cial times, companies may be looking to shift from natural gas to production of oil. Many production companies are looking to sell off their natural gas assets for a chance to participate in the booming shale oil market. While much attention has been paid to large quantities of natural gas shale, companies have realized that with newer technology, they can extract oil too. The article states that by 2010, the number of companies drilling oil in the country had increased from 180 in 2009 to 720 (Contagion oil & gas, 2010). Chesapeake, the second largest gas producer in the country, stated that it was reducing its gas production by 7 percent by the year 2013. This would bring down the company’s record of 23 years in which it has managed to increase to its production every year. The company officials commented that gas production would continue to decline if the prices kept on going down. This is because current prices will not allow companies to make an attractive return on the ir investments particularly in light of the investment costs incurred in developing the new unconventional gas fields that are likely to increase gas production for the next five years (Ridder, 2012). While a reduction in gas production would be considered a negative thing, today it is not. In fact, investors and analysts consider an increase in gas production as negative. Oil and gas companies are looking forward to generate attractive returns from natural gas production. Moreover,

Copyright and Creativity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Copyright and Creativity - Essay Example It is purported that copyright primarily serves the end of encouraging creativity, because of the inspiration it provides to authors/writers/creators and would-be authors/writers/creators that will see creativity as an opportunity to gain economic advantage as well as an acknowledgment of their talent. This claim, however, is being contested by those who argue that artists have been churning out great works of arts for centuries without the benefit of copyright protection. Worse, there are those who perceive copyright protection as an unwitting tool for stifling creativity as illustrated by recent cases where works have been prohibited from seeing publication on the ground that they infringe the copyright law. The question that is being contemplated by this paper, therefore, is whether or not copyright protection encourages or stifles artistic creativity. Background The US Copyright Law has its roots in the 1710, Statute of Anne, an English law that ended the monopoly of the Statione r’s Company by vesting exclusive right of books to their authors for fourteen years, subject to renewal. After the American Revolution in the 18th century, several states their own copyright laws that took after the Statute of Anne, but the Constitutional Convention decided that a unifying law on copyright should be enacted nationally and thus, attached a clause mandating such passage in Article 1 of the proposed Constitution. The subsequent Copyright Act of 1970 copied the 14-year period of exclusive right to authors renewable for another 14 years and was made applicable solely to books, maps and maritime charts. Eventually, however, the US copyright law was broadened to cover other original works as well. In the Copyright Act of 1909, the coverage of the grant extended to all written works not only in the US but to various written foreign works as well. In addition, it extended the period of the exclusive right to 28 years, which is renewable for another 28 years. The next copyright law, i.e. Copyright Act of 1976 is the precursor of the present US copyright law. This Act eliminated many of the earlier features as well as added new ones. For example, it established a single period of exclusive right for all kinds of works, which is the life of the author plus 50 years, dismissed the formalities and made the right applicable the very moment the work becomes a concrete medium of expression. 1 Before the present consolidated US copyright law came into being, the Copyright Act 1976 went through various amendments and supplementations. These include the following: the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992, which added copyright grant to digital audio recordings; the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998, which extended the exclusive right to 20 years, and; the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, which deals with high-technology works. 2 Features of the Present US Copyright Law Under the present US Copyright Law, which is denominated as Title 17 of the United States Code, the exclusive rights to reproduce, prepare derivative works, distribute copies, perform, display publicly and use in a digital audio transmission of works, are granted only to their authors or creators.3 The copyright grant covers only 8 kinds of words, and their respective derivatives, namely: literary

Understanding of the importance of literary techniques Essay - 1

Understanding of the importance of literary techniques - Essay Example Robert Browning is a master craftsman when it comes to the use of dramatic monologues in his poems. The Dramatic monologue is defined as â€Å"a literary, usually verse composition in which a speaker reveals his or her character, often in relation to a critical situation or event, in a monologue addressed to the reader or to a presumed listener† (Dramatic Monologue-Definition of Dramatic Monologue). Browning’s "My Last Duchess" possesses all these criteria of a dramatic monologue. The speaker in the poem is not the poet himself. In fact, Browning’s speaker in the poem represents a ‘psychological portrait of a powerful Renaissance aristocrat’ (Duke Ferrara) and the poem very well draws, in the minds of the readers, the image of a submissive presumed listener who pays heed to the Duke’s narration of the failings and imperfections of his late wife (My Last Duchess: Introduction). However, the reader can perceive from the dramatic monologue that t he so-called imperfections of the dutches are nothing but expressions of her virtues and her courtesy towards her servants. The very opening lines of the poem are quite suggestive. The lines, â€Å"Thats my last duchess painted on the wall, / Looking as if she were alive† clearly demonstrates the presence of an unseen audience or listener and the reader understands that the duchess is no longer alive. Similarly, towards the end of the poem, when the Duke states that â€Å"This grew; I gave commands;/Then all smiles stopped together† the reader grasps that it was he who ordered her murder. The actual character of the Duke is thus revealed through the dramatic monologue even when the listener remains absolutely silent. Thus, the poem’s elements of soliloquy (as there is only one speaker) and its dramatic, and lyrical qualities make it a perfect example for dramatic monologue and it is the effective use of dramatic monologue that offer new dimension to the theme an d treatment of

Foreign Workers Strike and Protests in UAE Literature review

Foreign Workers Strike and Protests in UAE - Literature review Example Another factor is the way that residence permits are used to make sure that expatriates stay tied to one particular employer. This article shows that restrictive employer practices in the UAE are contributing to calls for strikes among foreign workers. Bohning, W.R. (1996) Employing Foreign Workers: A manual on policies and procedures of special interest to middle- and low-income countries. Geneva: International Labour Organization. This handbook is an exhaustive guidebook on all the HRM mechanisms that could be useful for countries and companies which employ a large number of foreign workers. It deals with all the usual processes of hiring and firing, along with the rights of the workers and employers in terms of sickness benefits, remuneration and choice of location and living conditions. It is interesting to note that there is no section on worker rights to strike, or take part in any other kind of industrial action, but instead there is a reference to the desirability of â€Å"s pecial complaint and redress mechanisms† (p. 73). ... This book contains a collection of articles on managing human resources in different countries within the Middle East area. It is structured country by country and there is an introduction and concluding chapter by the two main editors. The fourth chapter is on the United Arab Emirates and is written by Abubakr Mohyeldin Tahir Suliman. This analysis gives brief introductions on the political and economic background to the UAE and then highlights some of the main HRM challenges which face the country including â€Å"employee theft, conflicts of interest, discrimination in hiring and promotion, quality control issues, and misuse of proprietary information† (p. 65) Although some of the data used in this article is quite old, it does give a good summary of the different industries which have developed in the last fifty years. It attributes the advanced state of HRM in the UAE to the contribution of well qualified and experienced foreign workers. Suliman explains the role of the UA E National Human Resources Development and Employment Authority (Tanmia) and the various professional Institutes which aim to manage the process of Emiratisation. He notes also that â€Å"there are no labor unions, and freedom of association is not recognized as a fundamental right in the UAE. Accordingly strikes are illegal†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 74) Significantly, there are no institutions in the UAE which offer specialized degree or certificate courses in HRM and this is an interesting finding which may help to explain why the whole issue of striking foreign workers is not being adequately approached in UAE at the present time. Godwin, S.M. (2006) Globalization, Education and Emiratisation: A Study of the United Arab Emirates. The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries

The political economies of Panama and Costa Rica Research Paper

The political economies of Panama and Costa Rica - Research Paper Example Costa Rica & Panama: Basics Costa Rica has an estimated population of 4.6 million as of July 2011 and a growth rate of 1.3% (IndexMundi, 2012). Sixty-four percent of this population is residing in urban centers of which about 94% are white, 3% black, 1% Amerindian, and 1% Chinese (IndexMundi, 2012). Their language is Spanish and the nation has high literacy rate of 94.9% (IndexMundi, 2012). The country allocated 6.3% and 10.5% in health from its GDP in 2009. The nation is located in the border of Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean. It is adjacent to Panama. Its rich geographic area is blessed with mineral, petroleum, hydropower and commercial resources (IndexMundi, 2012). Panama, on the other hand, has a population of 3.5 million and with a growth rate of 1.5% (IndexMundi, 2012). It has a 0.4 migration per a thousand of populace based and 75% of its people are residing in urban communities (IndexMundi, 2012). Panama has bilingual language: English and Spanish with predominant Roman Catholic religion. The country has allocated about 3.8% of its GDP for education and around 8.3% for health. Panama likewise is blessed with copper. Mahogany forests, hydropower and good shrimp culture among many other natural resources of commercial values. Costa Rica’s Pol-Economy Clare, Seanz and Trejos (2002) pointed that there are empirical evidences showing the decline of Costa Rica’s income per capita in the last decade albeit good economic standing in economic input. Clare et al. (2002) opined that the situation seemed amazing because the 80s to the 90s was the period when the country is undertaking serious reform in trading and fiscal performance. Re searcher attributed this mediocre 0.7% annual growth rate of income per capita to influential factors of development: demographic changes (Clare et al., 2002). The latter meant an increasing figure of labor productivity in industrial and agricultural sectors. Economists posit that such increase in participation in production, particularly women and immigrants from Nicaragua. While increased number of labor forces meant growth of income, however, economic activity is slowed by poor labor productivity. Labor productivity has only reached a poor rate of 1.57% in Costa Rica compared to 3-4% labor productivity in East Asian countries (Clare et al., 2002). Using growth accounting, researchers pointed that slow labor productivity growth is reflected in slight negative growth rate of total factor productivity (Clare et al., 2002). This finding is bit odd because the in the last four decades, multitude of technological advancements are poured in this country to support the labor forces in pr oduction. Further study using sectoral analysis was in fact utilized to determine whether slow growth of productivity is a universal phenomenon or merely underplayed by a particular sector. Oddly, Clare et al. (2002) found that the industrial and agricultural sectors continued to attain high rates labor growth productivity and TFP while the service sector stagnates in the production. Researchers opined that it’s ironic for the service sector to have decreasing production output noting that it’s absorbing a large share of resources. As a matter of fact, the service sector of Costa Rica has been allocated with budget higher than that of Brazil and Chile (Clare et al. 2002). Economists assumed that the service sector have difficulties in capturing its market. In a disaggregate

Is Adolescence a time of 'storm and stress' (individual development Essay

Is Adolescence a time of 'storm and stress' (individual development module) psychosocial study degree - Essay Example The adolescent is confronted with many different changes and is able to adapt to these changes in a constructive fashion, and in a way that results in developmental advance. Considering the large variety of tasks and problems encountered, adolescence is characterized by impressively effective coping in the majority of young people, a fact that has been widely neglected. Coping is the effort to manage (i.e., master, reduce, minimize) environmental and internal demands and conflicts which tax or exceed a persons resources and this shows that coping is a hypothetical construct that is sufficiently complex to take into account both person-specific and situation-specific aspects. Stressors and social resources are also two important concepts. The significance of coping behavior is evident in resiliency research showing that it is coping that makes the difference in both the adaptational outcome and in research on symptomatology, illustrating that the most reliable predictor for mental health is not so much a lack of symptoms, but the competence with which age-specific developmental tasks are handled (Compas & Hammen 1993) More than any other developmental period, adolescence has been characterized in the psychological and sociological literatures as fraught with struggles that are both intrapersonal and interpersonal in nature. In the intrapersonal domain, adolescence has been described as a period in which identity formation is a central developmental task. Achieving a sense of personal autonomy and an identity that is separate from the family is of utmost importance. Significant interpersonal tasks during adolescence are thought to include increased involvement with the peer group balanced against continued attachment to the family. Adolescence is a period in which relationships outside of the family multiply, take on new meanings, and deepen in intensity. These new bonds broaden and enrich the

SAAB's Cash Flow Problems Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

SAAB's Cash Flow Problems - Coursework Example This is where the concept of fair market value and forced sale value becomes important (Curtis, 2011, 1). Discussion Business failure can occur for various reasons ranging from legal, political and economic factors that are beyond an individual firm’s control, to internal factors like cash flow problems, manufacturing and selling difficulties and lack of firm orders on which to base production capacity. If a business finds it difficult to even break even and pay its own operating, selling and distribution costs, it can either look for a partnership, being rescued through a Government or private bailout, being acquired by a more stable entity or file for bankruptcy. Sadly this is what happened with SAAB, after its struggling Automobile Division was taken over by General Motors in 1990. But in the aftermath of the 2008 recession and subsequent bailout of General Motors itself by the American Government, SAAB Automobile Division was sold off to Spyker Cars N.V. with the aid of a Russian sponsor in 2010. Spyker had subsequently been renamed Swedish Automobiles. However, the purchase and operation of SAAB Automobiles proved too heavy for Spyker to manage because Spyker was a small firm and taking over SAAB had drained their cash position as well as tested their managerial capabilities to the maximum. After a purchase offer by a Chinese firm was thwarted by former owner General Motors (they were against the technology being available to Chinese manufacturers) the company filed a bankruptcy petition and started looking for a buyer. Various offers and counter offers were made from China Youngman, Tata Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, Koenisegg etc. The company could only produce between 20,000 and 40,000 vehicles at its manufacturing plants in Mexico and Sweden. The financial meltdown did not allow it to take advantage of the Chinese demand because it cancelled its plans to expand into new markets due to low cash position, paucity of credit and economic uncertaintie s. Various episodes of being unable to pay worker salaries and even to pay suppliers for materials repeated themselves in 2011. For example, July salaries were paid at the last minute on July 26; August salaries were paid through equity insurance as Gemini Fund purchased 5 million shares in SAAB. September salary payments also seemed to be in jeopardy. The Swedish Enforcement Administration has been monitoring SAAB in case of failure to meet creditor’s claims. The company Union has also threatened to go on strike because of salary payment difficulties that occurred three times in 2011. So we see that even financing from potential buyers had to be resorted to so that the company could be kept afloat (www.swedecar.com). It must be admitted that the lack of cash flow emerged from an apparent lack of attention to the production and marketing mix as well. Everyone knows that when you are trying to put a company or a brand name back on its feet, a sizeable amount of money must be s pent on advertising and press relations, creating hype and curiosity so that buyers are attracted to the upcoming offerings (Kotler & Keller,

The American Electoral System Essay Example for Free

The American Electoral System Essay The American electoral system is essentially based on political efficiency and partial representation. Political efficiency may be defined as expedient balance between imminent interests. Partial representation means instructional politics. These two principles govern the interest-aggregation process, and in general, political dynamics in democratic countries. Background At the Constitutional Convention, the Virginia Plan was used as the basis for discussion and debate. The Virginia Plan called for the executive to be chosen by the legislature (by open ballot). Delegates from the majority of states agreed to this method of election. However, the so-called ‘Committee of Eleven’ formed to labor out details which included the mode of election of the executive. The committee recommended that the election be by a group of people apportioned among the states in the same numbers as representatives in the US Congress. This group of people would be chosen by each state, in a way determined by the Legislative branch. Gouverneur Morris explained the factors for the change. Among the factors were as follows: 1) fear that the president would be chosen by a small group of men who met regularly in ‘evening sessions,’ 2) equal parity among states, and 3) popular elections as mediums for extreme and irresponsible demagoguery. On the 6th of September 1787, the Convention approved the Committee’s proposal with some opposition from delegates who preferred popular election. The move was based on the belief that the state government must be a derivative of state sovereignty. As O’Neil argued: The theory of State sovereignty was assumed as true and valid by all states. The Massachusetts constitution of 1780 declares that the people of that ‘commonwealth have the sole and exclusive right of governing themselves as a free, sovereign, and independent State’ with certain limitations there laid down (3). The move was also based on reactionary ideology. Southern politicians feared that the ‘popular vote’ method would lead ‘waste of ‘ballot. ’ As O’Neil correctly observed: One reason, purely sectional, existed which made a popular election impossible. The slavery problem was an important element in the framing of any plan. The Southern states, with their system of slave labor, would be threatened with the loss of their relative influence in the nation, because a large portion of their population could not be trusted with the ballot (4). During the framing of the Constitution, the ‘electoral’ system was institutionalized, with its efficient guiding principles and framework. However, it was not without opposition. Some of the founding fathers opposed the move, declaring it as an offshoot of ‘aristocratic’ ordeal – the fruit of reckless political estimation. However, as O’Neil noted: A slight reflection, however, will convince them that this mode is in perfect harmony with the spirit of the United States Constitution. With the exception of the members of the House of Representatives, no person holding office under the United States government derives his appointment directly from the people (2). The Term ‘Electoral College’ The term ‘Electoral College’ was never used to describe the general vote of the electors. It was not until in the 1800s that the term ‘electoral college’ came into use as the shared designation for the electors chosen to cast votes for the President and Vice President. In 1845, it was formally written into law. The Nature of the Electoral College in its Early Conception. The composition, nature, and role of the Electoral College are defined in the US Constitution, prior to the passage of the 12th Amendment. Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the US Constitution states: Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. In Section 1, Clause 4, the Congress is tasked to determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall cast their votes. Note that the day shall be the same throughout the country. In Clause 3 of the same section, it is determined that: The President and Vice President were to be chosen by the electors. Unlike the present system, each elector voted for two people for President, rather than one vote for President and one vote for Vice President. To become President, a candidate had to have more votes than any other and must have received votes from a majority of the electors. After the choosing of the President, the person with the most electoral votes among the remaining candidates would become the Vice President. If no one received a majority of the votes, the decision would be made by the House of Representatives. The form of the Electoral College was based upon several assumptions of the Framers of the Constitution: 1) each state should employ the district system of allocating electors, 2) independent judgment would be observed in the casting of vote of all electors, 3) candidates would not ‘pair together’ on the same ticket, and 4) the system would rarely create a winner, sending the election itself to Congress. The framers of the Constitution intended the Electoral College simply as a body that would nominate candidates from which Congress could select a President and Vice President. Each state government was free to have its own arrangements for selecting its electors. Revision With the rise of political parties and nationally coordinated election campaigns, the system complicated the 1796 and 1800 elections. In the 1796 election, John Adams was elected President, and Thomas Jefferson, Vice President. In 1800, Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the first place. Since all votes were for president, Burr’s votes were technically for him even though he was the party’s second option. The Congress remained deadlock for 35 ballots as neither candidate received the majority vote. To resolve the issue, Alexander Hamilton declared his support for Jefferson. Congress elected Jefferson President on the 36th ballot. To avoid this incident from occurring in the future, the US Congress proposed the 12th Amendment. Each elector could only cast one vote for President and one vote for Vice President. The 12th amendment superseded Article II, Section 1, Clause 3 of the Constitution. It was adopted in 1804. Constitutional Theory behind the Electoral System The founding fathers accepted the notion that the President and Vice President are elected as executives of a confederation of independent states. In short, in contrast to ‘popular election’ of members of Congress, the election of both the President and Vice President must be indirect. James Madison argued that the Constitution was created to be a combination of the state-based and population-based government. The US Congress should have two houses: the state-based House of Senate and the population-based House of Representatives. The President would be elected by a combination of the two methods. Madison was fearful of the growing cynicism of factions within the government. He defined faction as a group of citizens (either a majority or minority) who are united by some common or shared impulse of passion or interest detrimental to the rights of other citizens, in general, to the interests of the community. In Republican governments, factions would be generally curtailed because voter rights and powers are widely distributed. In short, the power of the faction would be lessened under a mixed-state set-up of government. In practice, this was short of impossible. As O’Neil noted: A sovereign nation and a limited national government were thought impossible. In rightfully opposing all projects of consolidation of the powers of sovereignty, they naturally fell into the error of opposing plan, which tended to the strengthening of the bonds of union, and the developing of a broader national spirit. Jealous opposition to the granting of too much power to the general government led them to oppose a plan electing a President which would make him the representative of the whole nation (4). Mechanics of the System When a citizen votes for a presidential candidate, that citizen is really instructing the electors to cast their votes for the same candidate. Suppose that the citizen vote for a Republican candidate. The citizen, in essence, is voting for an elector who will be ‘pledged to vote for the Republican candidate. The candidate who wins the popular vote in a state wins all the pledged votes of the state’s electors. Now, each state gets a number of electors equal to its members in the House of Representatives and one for each of its two senators. The District of Columbia gets three electors. State law determines how electors are chosen. In general though, they are selected by the political party committees within the states. A state with eight electors would cast eight votes. Currently, there are 538 electors. The majority vote is equal to 270 (requirement to be elected). In general, because Electoral College Representation is based on congressional allocation, states with larger populations get more Electoral votes. Suppose that none of the candidates win the required 270 electoral votes, the 12th Amendment require the election to be decided by the House of Representatives. Combined votes of each state are equivalent to one vote. A simple majority is required to be elected. It is possible for an elector to defect and not vote for the party’s candidate, because the Constitution does not require them to do so. However, such change in political attitude rarely affects the outcome of the election. In some states, ‘defector’ electors are prohibited from casting their votes. Nomination, Disqualification, and Meetings of Electors State political parties nominate candidates for electors months prior to the Election Day. The US constitution delegates to the state the authority for nominating and choosing its electors. In some states, electors are nominated through primaries. In some states, electors are nominated through party conventions. In other states, campaign committees of each candidate name their candidates for presidential elector. The Constitution prohibits person holding a federal office from being elected or appointed as elector. Note that a person who holds an office has sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution in order to hold either a state or federal office. When such person serves in the Electoral College, such individual is in theory rebelling against the United States. The congress though may remove this ‘function’ by two-thirds vote in each house. State legislatures determine how its electors are to be chosen. All states choose electors by popular election on the date specified by federal law. Forty eight states and Washington D. C. utilize the winner take all method – each awarding its electors as a single bloc. In other states, state legislatures select one elector within each congressional district by popular vote, and select the remaining two by statewide election. In the ‘short-ballot’ system, voters choose among a list of candidates for the associated elector. At present, only a few states list the names of the electors on the ballot. In other states, the voter is required to write-in names of candidates for elector. On Election Day, the electors meet in their respective state capital to cast their electoral votes on separate ballots for President and Vice President. Unlike the College of Cardinals, the Electoral College does not meet as one body. Congress has constitutional authority to regular the procedures in use. The election certification official opens the meeting and read the Certificate of Ascertainment. The document states the name of the chosen electors. Then, there is the selection of a president of the meeting. Sometimes, the electors choose a secretary, to take the minutes of the meeting. At the balloting time, the electors choose people to act as tellers. Each elector submits a ballot with the name of a candidate for President. The tellers count the ballots and announce the result. Then the casting of the vote for Vice President follows. After the voting is complete, the electors certify the Certification of Vote. This document states the number of electoral votes cast for both the President and Vice President. Copies are sent to the Senate President. Staff member from the Vice President collects the certificates for the joint session of Congress. The Certificates are arranged in alphabetical order. The Congress declares the winner of the election in the joint session. Conclusion The present electoral system of the United States is essentially based on the belief that the President and Vice President are executives of a confederation of independent states. As such, they cannot be directly elected by the people. The advantages of this system are quite obvious. First, it prevents the concentration of power in urban areas. Second, it maintains the federal character of the country. Third, it strengthens the status of minority groups. Fourth, it encourages political stability (political polarization). Fifth, it isolates election problems. And lastly, it maintains a clear line of succession. However, the system has not without criticisms. One criticism states that the electoral system destroys the essence of democratic vote, or in general, the true conception of popular sovereignty. A nation without true sovereignty cannot be nation, as what Burke would argue. In essence, the electoral system enhances the ‘aristocratic’ values of a predicated political system. Works Cited O’Neil, Charles. ‘The American Electoral System. ’ New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2007. The United States Constitution (and other documents). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992.

Understandings And Responses To Paedophilia

Understandings And Responses To Paedophilia The concept of paedophilia started to formulate as an object of scientific study in the mid ninetieth century, as a part of the broader context of sexual deviations. It was first noticed as a phenomenon in the sex industry of the time that provided young children to satisfy certain appetites. Later on, child prostitution took place in post war big cities also as a means of livelihood. Mentions of this kind of prostitution were found even in literature by novelists such as Dostoevsky and Malaparte (Schinaia, 2010). However, paedophilia became a matter of great concern and study during the second half of the twentieth century. Until then it was considered to be a sporadic aberration as Freud put it (Angelides, 2005) while the paedophile didnt seem to pose a threat to society. During the last few decades paedophilia has emerged from the background. Now more than ever paedophiles are being marked and judged as sexual offenders and not as people with alternative sexual orientation. Certain cases, like the Sarah Payne case, received extensive media coverage resulting to augmented public attention and, at times, mass panic. Paedophilia has subsequently been classified in the publics mind to raise all the alarms as far as protecting the young children and the well being of the society goes. This attention has resulted in paedophilia receiving accordingly attention from the social studies that examine the aetiology, the ways it manifests and the possible treatments for those who exhibit such deviances (McCartan, 2010). The current paper is a critical review of the literature that deals with the issue of paedophilia. As a first step the definitions of paedophilia will be given, as they are formed under the spectrum of various sciences such as medicine and social studies. It is not strange that regarding the definition of paedophilia there is not the consensus among the scientists as one would though there would be. The ethical standards, what is and what is not a deviance or even when pubescence begins, are concepts that are undergoing changes simultaneously with society (Schinaia, 2010). Moreover, what is being considered as paedophilia in a western culture could be perceived as a way to facilitate the passage to adulthood depending on the culture (Harrison et al, 2010). At this point paedophilia will be compared to other aspects of sexual deviations and its relation to them. The next step is to examine how paedophilia and paedophiles are being comprehended by the public. This paper will provide, through the current literature, an overview of how the public, the press and the law have changed their understanding of the matter. Subsequent to the change in perception is the change in reaction and the emergence of pro action. New laws are being implemented and parental awareness seems to be at its peak. But are these steps being taken due the acknowledgement of real danger or because of mass panic deriving from extensive media coverage? As the weight has shifted from homosexuality to paedophilia (Angelides, 2005), is it right to assume that people look at the matter while its exploding out of proportion, or is it safe to say that finally they see thing as they really are? Reviewing the studies that have been published and the conclusions that theorists of the matter came to, will provide a better understanding of the issue at hand. The last part of this paper provides the assessment of the risk that paedophiles pose to society and whether they can be treated. Regardless of the existence, or rather the lack of it, of a unanimous definition of paedophilia, what is the right way to proceed with convicted paedophiles? The question of importance that is being addressed at this point is if a paedophile should be treated as a criminal or as a mentally unstable patient that can be treated and reintegrated to society. This particular subject is rather sensitive to address. It involves prepubescent children that have been traumatized by actions of sexual offenders. It also involves convicted offenders, people that modern western society abhors. In order to approach this one should proceed with caution. A primary research on the matter would need participants from both categories. The questions that are raised on the subject of paedophilia are extensive and, if they are to be researched properly, only an in depth experiment would suffice. Moreover, a solid theoretical background, which as will be discussed later in this paper is still being constructed, that can provide the needed boost to the right direction would be required. Instead, a secondary based research can provide the desired overview of the subject, simultaneously giving the essential information on the topic and helping the reader to form an educated opinion. However, the practical aspects and difficulties of the endeavor are of lesser importance. That which carries the most weight is that with a desk based research the danger of re victimizing young children is nonexistent. It is the safest way to approach the matter, doing so by reviewing the literature. Chapter 1 Defining paedophilia Sexual behavior Sex, in a strict definition, is the means of procreation for humans. However, sex can happen for a great many deal of reasons (Rye; Meaney, 2007), mainly pleasure. From this perspective it can be defined as the stimulation of the genitals resulting in a pleasurable reflex that is orgasm (Rye; Meaney, 2007). Although, peoples definitions regarding sex vary, there is a consistency between what they perceive as sex and their sexual attitudes (Peterson Muehlenhard, 2007). A persons sexuality is the way one perceives of oneself as a sexual being (Bay-Cheng, 2003) and pursues sexual pleasure. Normal sexual behavior includes bringing pleasure to oneself and his or hers partner. The procedure involves the stimulation of the genitals and usually includes intercourse (Rye Meaney, 2007). Sexual Dysfunctions Sexual dysfunctions are a series of problematic symptoms to the normal sexual function of a person. These kinds of symptoms can vary from erectile dysfunction or premature or delayed ejaculation for men, vaginal dryness, and pain during sex dyspareunia- or difficulty coming to an orgasm anorgasmia- for women. The causes of sexual dysfunction are as multiple as the symptoms. The psychological state of a person such as depression, intense stress or other psychological factors can easily result in sexual problems in performance. Drug abuse is another factor that can contribute dramatically to the dysfunction of a person on the particular subject. Overall condition of a persons health is another aspect of the cause of sexual dysfunction. Diseases such as diabetes or hormonal imbalances can deteriorate dramatically someones sexual desire or impair his or hers capability. Even when all the above reasons are absent, age alone can lead to sexual dysfunctions. Mental disorders and paraphilias Defining sexual disorders can be a hazy situation. The American Psychiatric Association defines mental disorder as: a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress (e.g., a painful symptom) or disability (i.e., impairment in one of more important areas of functioning) or with a significantly increased risk of suffering death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom. In addition, this syndrome or pattern must not be merely an expectable and culturally sanctioned response to a particular event, for example, the death of a loved one. Whatever its original causes, it must currently be considered a manifestation of a behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunction in the individual. Neither deviant behavior (e.g., political, religious, or sexual) nor conflicts that are primarily between the individual and society are mental disorders unless the deviance or conflict is a sympto m of a dysfunction in the individual, as described above (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2000, p.xxxi). All forms of paraphilias are considered to be mental disorders. Paraphilia is the recurrent sexual behavior, urges or fantasies that involve non human objects, non consenting adults or children and suffering or humiliation (Laws ODonohue, 2008). Paraphilias tend to be considered as such when they are recurrent for a period longer than six months and they are a reason for difficulties in everyday functioning. Paraphilia includes apart from paedophilia, voyeurism, exhibitionism, fetishism, transvestic fetishism, frotteurism, masochism, sadism (Pursell Arrigo, 2006) and necrophilia (Laws ODonohue, 2008). Paedophilia Clinical definition The etymology of the word paedophilia leads to the Greek words pais (à Ã¢â€š ¬ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ±ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡), which means child and philia (à Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¹ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ »ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¯ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ±) which means friendly love (Riegel, 2005). However, the current meaning of the word as is perceived far exceeds any kind of friendly love. The current definition of paedophilia is, as it is in DSM-IV, under the broader context of paraphilias. The understanding is that paedophilia is a form of mental disorder and as such is treated. Given the definition of DSM-IV the offender has to have sexual urges or fantasies that has either acted upon or cause him distress for a period over six months. The offender has to be at least 16 years of age or at least 5 years older than the child and the child is up to 13 years old (DSM-IV, p. 571). Points of this definition cause more debate than give grounds for further theorizing. It is not clearly stated what is meant by acted upon or what is actually meant by child gi ven that childhood can differ from society to society (Harrison et al, 2010). Such vague concepts lead to a new definition of paedophilia to the new DSM-V that is expected in May 2013. The leading opinion is that the change in the paedophilic definition will be substantial, as it is expected to be named Peadophebephilic disorder, which refers to both sexual attraction of pubescent children (hebephilic) and prepubescent children (paedophilic) (Harrison et al, 2010). Legal definition of paedophilia The legal definition of paedophilia is another entirely problematic aspect of the matter. Beginning with the appropriate definition of age for a child to the age of criminal responsibility or the age of consent for sexual activity, there are variations. Different countries with different cultures define as child someone at very different ages, from 14 in Uzbekistan to 21 in Argentina (Harrison, 2010). Moreover, within the law itself in the United Kingdom, there are discrepancies about the age that someone is consider to be a child. Different acts and schemes have different age limits, so there is confusion on the matter (McCartan, 2008). Another implication is in regards to what is considered to be a criminal act. In the UK as sex offences are considered apart from having sexual relations to a child, also grooming, making a child watch pornography or sexual intercourse of others or forcing a child to have sexual intercourse with someone (Sex Offenders Act 2003). The UK law concerning paedophilia states that as paedophilia is assumed any sexual relationship between someone over 18 years and someone else under 16 years of age. In the event of the younger participant is less than 13 years old and as such cannot give consent, the sexual relationship is considered to be statutory rape (McCartan, 2008). Paedophilia in modern society Paedophilia has become an issue in the UK during the last decade. High profile cases have come to be widely known, and in many cases, the public outcry has caused the government to take action (McCartan, 2008). Not only the media, but also researchers and other professionals have been immensely consumed with the topic. Paedophilia up to some decades ago was not a distinct case of paraphilia. It was referred to as sodomy, without any differentiation at the age. The growth in paedophilia references over the past few years in Western society was enormous. It has become an issue of public discourse emerging from non existence (Goode, 2011). The public has formed opinions as the governments have implemented laws. However, its a highly emotive issue and at this stage is based more on opinions than facts. The media coverage explosion (McCartan, 2008) has led to that direction misguiding the public not as to the severity of the issue but as to its real dimensions and proportions. If anything else, the times are characterized of an overflow in information to and from all directions. Other types of sexual abuse Hebephilia Hebephilia is defined to be the sexual attraction and sexual relations to someone pubescent (Green, 2005). Pubescent or early pubescent can be characterized someone at the ages of 11 to 14 years (Blanchard, 2010). The use of the term is very rare and diagnostic tools such as the DSM-IV or the International Classification of Diseases do not mention it (Franklin, 2010). Hebephelia, when concerning heterosexual men and young girls can be attributed to the primary instinct for better chances in breeding (Franklin, 2010). Research however, has stated (Blanchard, 2010) that this does not actually increase fertility. Actually, hebephelia is not considered to be normal sexual behavior but, at the same time, does not fall into the category of sexual deviations due to mental disorders (Frances First, 2011). Incest Incest is called the sexual relation between two members of the same family, who by law cannot get married. There is much debate on whether there are or not neurocognitive functions of the human brain that avoid incest (Liberman et al, 2003). Moreover, the theory that human can identify their own kin has been put to the test more than once. Incest is considered to be even more damaging to a child than sexual molestation. As it is provoked by a family member, the child loses its most fundamental basis (Becker et al, 1986) of the support system anyone has. The actual numbers of incest are unknown, even more than in other cases, because of the nature of the offence. Chapter 2 Public Perceptions of Paedophilia Formation of public attitudes towards paedophilia The public perceives the society as being of great risk for the children (Cavanagh, 2007). The reasons of this belief are multiple. The constant change in human society due to technological advances results in changes that cannot be measured and, most importantly, cannot be determined in a strict cause effect manner (McCartan, 2008). Paedophilia is one of these issues that have been imprinted into the publics mind as deriving from the modernization of life. The main concern of the public is the defense of the weak, such as the children, and the moral structure of family and society. Although the issue is not entirely unknown to the public, the last two decades it has resulted in the formation of strong, however emotive, attitudes. Based more on stories than facts (Marsh Melville, 2011), media fuelled discourses keep shaping the publics beliefs. High profile cases add each time a new piece of information that contains revelations about paedophilia. There is a lack of evidence based information reaching the public as academics, health professionals and policy makers are not in agreement. Theorists do not contribute as they should in forming the publics opinion regarding paedophilia. Media impact on the formation of public attitudes The publics reaction to paedophilia is reaching from one end, complete indifference, passes through the notion that if we ignore it it will vanish (Cloud, 2002), to the other end, vigilante attacks to known paedophiles (Allison, 2000). This is not independent from media coverage. There are shows on TV that demonstrate relationships that could be characterized as hebephilic, yet they do not bring about public outcry. That is because, as no one is getting hurt not obviously at least, it all seems plausible and logical (Cloud, 2002). Of course, this is not the case for the majority of the media. Their headlines full of imminent threats feed on pre existing anxieties (Cavanagh, 2007) of the public. On a sensitive subject, such as paedophilia, the media works as the publics basic information giver. Since, there are very few academic or other sources on paedophilia, the public relies heavily on the media to know and understand what is happening (Marsh Melville, 2011). The media coverage of cases like Sarah Paynes in the UK or Megan Kankas in the US was unprecedented. The public had the media as sole informative on the situations. The headlines in the newspapers grew stronger and angrier, leading the concerned citizens to similar reactions (Marsh Melville, 2011). Official acts and media coverage have been intertwined, both to satisfy the needs of the public (Cavanagh, 2007). The media, via public pressure, have also forced the government to take action. Following each high profile paedophile case there is a new law (McAlinden, 2010). This is not, of course, the result of a well constructed scheme in order to really deal with the issue, than it is more of a responsive action due to pressure. Validity of media representations However strongly presented the media information regarding paedophilia is not based on facts. They are more of an interpretation of a situation, presenting each time the new enemy paedophile (Marsh Melville, 2011). The explosion on reports of sexual offences leads to the assumption that there is a sudden increase in sex crime, leaving those who are vulnerable defenseless (McAlinden, 2006). Since the stories in the media are not actual scientific studies, facts and assumptions get confused. One of the grave misconceptions that derive from the media is that all paedophiles act on their urges. A diagnosis from a psychiatrist of paedophilic tendencies doesnt always ensure that they will be acted upon (Cloud, 2002). On the other hand, it is not necessary for someone to be a diagnosed paedophile to sexually abuse a child. Internet pornographic rings have often proved to function as means of exploitation. The ambiguity of the definitions of paedophilia has its fair share of the misinterpreted data by the media. The academics tend to confine the subject within by limited research and continuous alterations. The risk assessment, also, is based on rather speculative assumptions than on scientific and objective methods (McAlinden, 2010). Characteristics of paedophiles according to the public The paedophile is considered to be an obscure figure, stranger to the child and the family, waiting for the opportunity to arise. The children are constantly being reminded of never talking to strangers, receiving gifts, getting in their cars or even walking with them. However, this stranger danger is an exaggeration when paedophilia is concerned. Statistics show that the vast majority of sex offenders in general and paedophiles in particular are from within the family or the close environment of the child. Almost half of the child sexual abusers are the parents and almost 20% other relatives (Cloud, 2002). The public in reality does not have much information on paedophiles to form an educated opinion. The research on the issue is limited and restricted to the academic circles. The inconsistency between academic, clinical and legal viewpoints (McCartan, 2008) of paedophilia leave the public open to suggestions, usually by the media. The internet is not free of blame for paedophilia cases. With the increased use of the World Wide Web by continuously younger people, new cases of children being victimized come to light. The public perceives the internet sex offender as someone who is lurking in the shadows to fool the youngest (Marsh Melville, 2011). The whole of Internet is being blamed, service providers and websites, for harboring such offenders. The subject of responsibilities of the vast children pornography that can be found on line has yet to be addressed by the proper authorities (Cavanagh, 2007). Moral panic and paedophiles A usual reaction of the public to people or situations it believes to be threatening is moral panic. Its a term widely used since the late 1970s, though it had been first used in the late 1800s, to describe the exaggerated reaction of the public or the authorities, such as the government, aiming to control that which poses a danger to everyday life, safety or values (Marsh Melville, 2011). Its a coping mechanism to situations that seem to be unreasonable and with no solution (McCartan, 2008). Not to be overlooked is the participation of the newspaper News of the World and its affiliates, like the Sun, to the moral panic of paedophilia (Marsh Melville, 2011). Following the Sarah Paynes murder case News of the World began a campaign against all known or suspected paedophiles. The newspaper, using the Sex Offender Act of 1997, published about 200 names, locations and photographs of convicted sex offenders. This resulted to a frenzy reaction by the public as well as disappearances and suicides of certain offenders. Instigating moral panic is the result of groups aiming to do the exact opposite. Physical or internet organizations have been created with the intention of informing and protecting the public. However, this has resulted in an abundance of watchers that are the new spokespeople for the fight against paedophilia (Marsh Melville, 2011). Moreover, these moral entrepreneurs (Marsh Melville, 2011) promote the solution that each one favors, with the outcome of leaving the public at a loss and without the ability to divert its thoughts. Other explanations for moral panic that they are either orchestrated by those who have interest in diverting the publics attention from something else or they are a result of pre existing anxieties of the public (McCartan, 2008). So, according to these theories the moral panic of paedophilia is a constructed situation, sustained by the media and government, based on the publics fears for the childrens safety. Change in public perceptions It is a difficult task to put the publics mind at ease regarding paedophilia. The moral panic is at each peak so far and the majority of the people are already set on a path of punitive response to the problem. However, the measurement of trust to the justice system bares disappointing results. In the UK, and other countries as well, the confidence in the system keeps declining. This can happen for a variety of reasons (Van de Walle, 2010). The leading concerns of the UK citizens are the slow movement of the system and its inefficiency, leniency even, towards paedophiles (McAlinden, 2010). Also, the pre emptive approach of the government is not actually offering much to this direction (Kemshall Weaver, 2012). The public waits for a feeling of security that is not inspired by the schemes, as is proven by the low participation (Lipscombe, 2012). The change in public perceptions on the issue of paedophilia is currently for the most part controlled by the media. However, research shows that what is being interpreted by the government as need for full disclosure is actually mistaken (Kemshall Weaver, 2012). There is a discrepancy of what is being presented as true and what the public really wants. This marks a shift of the publics disposition to a more organized effort than disclosure can offer. Chapter 3 Understanding paedophilia in a broader Social and Political context Policy makers During the last two decades a large number of cases concerning paedophilia have come to light in England and Wales. The publicity they received was unprecedented and caused strong public reactions. Public awareness over paedophilia has resulted in taking steps in the direction of assessing and treating individuals who have or are at risk of sexually abusing children. However, as the public is pushing towards a punitive response, the officials are trapped taking actions of risk reduction often not combined with treatment and reintegration of the offenders (McCartan, 2012). These past two decades were marked by the overwhelming emergence of new laws that move to the direction of preventing crime by posing an abundance of sanctions (McAlinden, 2010). Instead of risk assessing government uses implementing of new legislation as a pre emptive means of averting sex offenders acts. This sudden growth of new policies, deriving from the emotive nature of the issue of paedophilia, has resulted in an uncertain, or even unsafe, legislation environment (McAlinden, 2010). However, there are those who advocate for such a system since there actually is a decrease, almost one third from 1992 to 1998 in the US (Cloud, 2002), that can be attributed to the increase in conviction of sex offenders. The question is that if indeed the official policy making is driven by the media and their extensive coverage of the paedophilia stories (Kemsall Weaver, 2012). Its a vicious circle that the more public and media are abhorred by paedophiles cases becoming public the more the Home Office reacts by implementing schemes that alter again the publics standpoint by giving new possible actions. The most known example of such a co dependent relation is the name and shame campaign that was an initiative from the newspaper News of the World, following the Sara Payne murder. Academic society In the academic circles there is no real consensus on the subject of paedophilia. The usual response of them is to be dismissive of the subject and treat paedophilia as a subject of little consequence (Smith, 2010). Much like the public their views are either formulated like the publics, considering at the back of their heads paedophiles as monsters but distant from them, or they are of a mild disposition to the subject, sometimes to the point of approval (Smith, 2010). The academics viewpoint is diametrically opposed to the one of those who work with children that suffered sexual abuse. There are those who make the distinction between the harmful and the innocent aspect of paedophilia. Theorists have tried to define when and if contact with a child is actually harmful. Moreover, they support that most paedophiles are actually gentle and well mannered, and not the monsters the public fears. There is in fact a disagreement on whether paedophilia is a mental disorder, like other paraphilias, or in fact is a sexual orientation, that has not been accepted yet (Smith, 2010). The B4U AC is a combined effort between people who are attracted to minors and professionals who support their claim for legalizing such relationships (B4U-ACT.org). Health professionals Paedophilia falls under the category of mental disorders according to the DSM definition and as such is of great concern to health professionals. The framework now applied gives them the opportunity to work in combination with the authorities to prevent recidivism (Perkins et al, 1998) as well as support for the children who are victimized. The contribution of Child Protection Advisors (CPA) from NHS Highland to the matter at hand is enormous. They monitor the majority of case discussions and provide a valuable contribution to the process of risk assessment and management (MAPPA, 2009/2010). Shared information across all MAPPA agencies improves the care of the patients, since the paedophiles are being seen as such, as a wide variety of tools is being given to them. The majority of sex offenders do not actually have a mental illness. However, they do present a variety of personality disorders that may result in paraphilias. The establishment of multi agency practices can lead to better assessment and treatment than small clusters of professionals can provide (Gordon Grubin, 2004). Moreover, most practitioners feel strongly that the government is addressing the subject from a punitive point. They believe that the government, istead of exploring ways to treat and re integrate paedophiles into the society, has the sole concern of reducing recidivism by means of punishment. The law Law making regarding paedophilia is a task with many obstacles and considerations. Since paedophilia is considered to be a mental disorder, if an act is actually criminal or not depends on the age of the perpetrator (Harrison et al, 2010). In England and Wales the age at which someone can be seen as criminally responsible is 10 years old. The definition of paedophilia considers the paedophile as an adult, who is at least 18 years old. Of course, the conundrum is apparent. Someone under 10 can be engaged in activities that can be characterized as child sexual abuse but will not face punishment and on the other hand, someone can be over 10 but his actions do not fall into the DSM definitions of paedophilia. The path in legislating for sex offenders and risk management was set by the Sex Offenders Act 1997 and the Crime Sentences Act 1997. These marked a shift towards a more strict management of the offenders as well as a way for the public to protect itself through information (McCartan, 2008). The act that works as a blanket for all issues of sexual offences, not only paedophilia while the term is actually not used- but also rape, or sexual assault is the Sexual Offences Act (SOA) 2003. It is an improvement on the Sexual Offences Act 1956 (Home Office, 2002). The Act concerns anyone who Is convicted of an offense listed in Schedule 3, Is found not to be guilty of such an offence because of insanity, Is found to have a disability and to have done the act charged against him in respect of such an offence; or In England and Wales or Northern Ireland, he is cautioned in respect of such an offence. (SOA 2003, part 2) Anyone who falls into the previous categories needs to notify the police once every year about his full name and date of birth, his current address and national insurance number, and about any travel outside the UK for a period of 3 days or more. Other details such as if the offender is living in a house with a minor or details about his bank accounts would prove to be helpful to the police in managing successfully the offenders. The offender needs also to notify the police whenever there are changes in the previously mentioned data (SOA 2003, part 2). At the moment the offenders notify the police locally. There is currently a development in a national database that will include the information of all registered sex offenders all over the UK (Home Office, 2002). In addition to the existing legislation there is the Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000. The aim of the Act is to help the protection of the public, ensure the reduction of re offending, see to the proper punishment of the offenders and also, help their rehabilitation. The Act has set the basis of inter agency collaboration in regards of effectively managing the risk a known sex offender poses to the community (Home Office, 2002). Policies regarding paedophilia The publics desire, and the subsequent government action (McCartan, 2010), for better monitoring and control of sex offenders have led to a number of implemented policies. The UK government published in June 2007 the Review of the Protection of Children from Sex Offenders. The Disclosure Scheme aimed in providing a new means of information about potential risks involving certain individuals. The Disclosure Scheme began a process where anyone with interest in a ch

Impact Of Mobile Phone On Work Life

Impact Of Mobile Phone On Work Life Impact of mobile phone on work-life balance of field workers Abstract This research report is an exploratory study of impact of mobile phone on work performance, productivity and personal life of field workers. Are field workers able to take the advantage of mobile phone and related new technologies to improve their work life balance or they finding it difficult to manage their work and personal life due to use of mobile phone? This research is an attempt to understand the impact of mobile phone and related new technologies on their work life balance. Introduction The success of western economies is much more depends upon the efficiency and output of the field workers (Drucker, 1999). According to him field workers are also called as knowledge workers. A knowledge worker mainly works away from the desk and works in technical services and spend more time with clients and dealers whereas field workers also works away from desk and deals with the customers service. Many organisations provide equipped handy mobile devices to field workers which allow them to access the various applications and chance to communicate with the office workers and clients during field work. Work life balance is defined as creating a productive and fruitful work environment where tension between work and personal life is minimised (State service commission NZ, 2005). It means perfect combination of participation in paid work and unpaid work (personal life, social responsibilities and family work). Work life balance is all about implementation of policies which will helpful for workers and staff to maintain their healthy and satisfying lifestyle which will leads to improve performance and productivity of the worker. The main purpose of this study is to understand the impact of mobile phone on work life balance of field workers. This study is design to provide detail analysis of use of mobile phone during work time and off time and its impact on work and personal life of workers. Applying work life balance in organisation is very important to develop the productivity of workers. It is broadly consider that mobile phone and internet are distorting margins among workplace and personal life. Some researchers believe that mobile phone is threat to the modern life, whereas other considers it as a new opportunity to maintain work life and family life (Wajcman et al., 2008). No other device has been spread drastically amongst the people than mobile phone but its social and personal impact is not clearly known. This research report is base for assessing impact of mobile phone on work life balance of field workers. Mobile phones and field workers In 1990s, first time GE and CompuCom organisations provided mobile phones and laptops to their field workers and sales representatives and made them mobile workforce (Pepe, 1999). The main motive of these organisations of ‘going mobile was to make their field workers more productive and improve their ability to use dead time while traveling. As a result, field workers can check voice mails and can give call back in their spare time like waiting at airport, train stations. In the past few years mobile technology changed very dramatically. According to Jarvenpaa and Langs (2008) mobile technology is combination of communication, hardware and software handheld IT devices which includes PDAs, mobile phones and other integrated wireless devices enterprises like Blackberry. Mobile phone allows field workers for more bendable plans and gives independence to work from anywhere and anytime. Demand of work life balance is very sizzling topic amongst the various organisations to improve the productivity of workers. In 1980s the importance and need of females and field workers is recognised by organisations like Deloitte Touche and Merck. IBM started to change the policies like maternity leaves, EAPs (Employee Assistance Programme), home based work and child care policies to improve work life balance of female workers and field workers (Pepe, 1999). The Economist Intelligence Unit conducted a survey in 2004 with more than 1500 field workers on mobile phone practices in field work (Belen, 2009). More than 75% field workers proposed that tools like email, text messages and voice calls help them to improve their productivity and availability on the job. They also described other benefits like faster decision making, real time information and flexibility. However flexibility on the field work means not an opportunity for the field workers to maintain their work life balance (Taylor 2003; Rood 2005). The Economic Intelligence Unit also found some disadvantages of the mobile phone practice amongst the field workers like trouble in managing their work home balance (Belen, 2009). According to Jarvenpaa and Langs (2008) mobile phone also brings some disadvantages to the life of field workers like â€Å"less personal time† and incapability to isolate themselves from the work during there off time. In other research by Schlosser (2002) where he interviewed with field workers and he found common disadvantage of being mobile leads to increase in expectation of availability. Increase in expectations indirectly increases workload and responsibility on the workers. They also feel compulsory to respond to the calls from their subordinates and managers (Davis, 2002). Due to more expectation of availability and quick response to work allied problems in weekends may indirectly affect the work life balance and may increase frustration amongst the workers (Jarvenpaa, Lang, et al 2003). Impact of mobile phone on work Lyytinen and Yoo (2002) published the research on work environment for organisations and individuals in which they proposed the impact of mobile phone and other wireless technology must have to be calculated by considering performance of team and output of the workers. There are many theories are available to measure the adoption of new technology and its impact on individuals. On the basis of TAM (Technology Acceptance Model) theory Breu, Hemingway and Ashurst (2005) conducted a research and they proposed some important aspect of impact of mobile phones on field workers. Improved job performance: Most of the interviewees explained that use of mobile phone helped them for quick communication process and better decision making while working on field which helped them to boost their job performance. Improved productivity: According to the 45% field workers mobile phone with the multiple function and internet access improved their productivity. Instead of waiting for client or customer they can use their dead time for other task like checking and sending emails, new updates and cold calling. They also described the benefit of real time information due to use of mobile phone as they can attained meeting with the latest and updated data and information. Faster task accomplishment:Use of mobile phone and new technological devices enables field workers to complete their task faster and in effective way. Rather than going back to the office or desk to complete task field workers get independence of physical location to complete the work (Breu, Hemingway and Ashurst, 2005). Greater work control:As per the field workers who spend more time with customers and clients agreed that mobile phone with internet gave them greater work control. Improved consulting process: As per the Breu, Hemingway and Ashurst, (2005) interviewees gave the reason that why they can meet more customers face to face on work fields, because these devices like mobile phone with internet facility enable them more responsive to the customers queries and communications. Improved collaboration:field workers agreedthat mobile phone reduced their communication gap with other team mates and improved their collaboration on consulting team. Other field workers propose that collaboration improved due to easy way of transferring private electronic files and personal work related documents. Make job easier:Not every fieldworker agreed on this statement that use of mobile phone make their job easier. Some found it easier to complete work but difficult to maintain their personal and family life and some found it as easy to maintain personal life but tough in field work. Recently, AMTA (Australian Mobile Telecommunication Association) published a survey in 2008 which was conducted within 2189 individuals in Australia on impact of mobile phone work life balance of Australian workers (Wajcman et al., 2007). They found some interesting things about impact of mobile phone on Australian workers. The key points are as follows, 20% field worker said that its impossible for them to work without mobile phone. 75% field workers feels secure on field job with mobile phone. Two third of the male field worker switch off their mobile phone on weekdays to avoid being disturbed by office work. More than half interviewees agreed that use of mobile phone increased their productivity. Impact of mobile phone on field workers Personal and family life:According toBreu, Hemingway and Ashurst (2005) half of the field workers agreed that use of mobile phones helps them to maintain their personal and family life. Mobile phone allowed them to become in touch with family during field work and they can easily communicate with the family members in emergency and normal cases. In contrast some field workers described that use of mobile phone impact negatively on their work life balance. Some workers found very difficult to balance their family and personal life with work life due to availability of mobile phone. Mental stress:Due toincrease in expectation of availability and instant response to the work related issues during personal time increases the mental stress on field workers which finally result in work life imbalance. 34% field workers said that it is very difficult to isolate them with work on off days due to the mobile phone which sometime increases their mental stress (Breu, Hemingway and Ashurst, 2005). Frustration: According totheEconomic Intelligence Unit survey, receiving calls on weekend and off time make workers frustrate mainly in case of women field workers (Belen, 2009). The author also proposed that women field workers are very specific about their work time and family time. Commitment and loyalty: State service commission NZ (2005) published a report on work life balance where it states that organisation provides various facilities to their workers like mobile phone, internet facility, increment, holiday pays. This kind of rewards and facilities increases the feeling of commitment in workers and it forced workers to responds quickly and even on off time. According to report workers also feel more pressurised due to their commitment and loyalty to the organisation. AMTA (Australian Mobile Telecommunication Association) found some interesting things about impact of mobile phone on Australian workers (Wajcman et al., 2007). The key finding of survey is as follows, 40% workers admitted that mobile increase their work load and 55% respond with neutral effect. More than 50% field workers respond that mobile phone helps their work life balance and very few workers said that negative impact of mobile phone on work life balance. As per the survey 60% male field workers has separate mobile phone for work and private use. 58% female field workers said that work calls on weekdays and off time disturbed them and increase their mental stress. As per the figure 1 and 2, Wajcman et al. (2007) described that around 20% male field workers found job difficult without having mobile phone. 30% male field workers found job very easy without mobile phone and even this percentage increases in female field workers up to 50%. Very few field workers said that their work life balance decrease a lot due to mobile phone. In contrast more than 50% workers said that there is no change in their work life balance. Around 40% field workers agreed that use of mobile phone somewhat increases their work life balance. Mobile phone and work family issues 1) Security of the children Most of the workers care about their childrens while work especially in case of female field workers. According to State service commission NZ (2005) survey 72% workers purchased mobile phone for their children to monitor their action. Mobile phone makes field workers more relax about childrens security on field because they know they can contact their children anytime anywhere (Breu, Hemingway and Ashurst, 2005). 2) In consistently separated couple relationship Field workers who lived consistently away from wife or family regarding job, mobile phone plays pivotal role in maintaining their relationship. In many cases where field workers are physically apart from their partner but with the help of mobile phone they can stay closer. According to the AMTA (Australian Mobile Telecommunication Association) survey 80% female field workers agreed that mobile phone plays very important role in their relationship when they are apart from each other (Wajcman et al., 2007). 3) Family household coordination Lowry Moskos (2005) proposed that mobile phone and new technology can bring better coordination in work and family of the field workers. As per AMTA survey all workers gave some important points on question that, how mobile phone assist family and household coordination? In reply workers said, get-together of family members, picnic planning, sending good and gifts, general information like when they will reach at home are some important things they can manage through mobile phone when they are on work and they can manage their family household coordination (Wajcman et al., 2007). Tethering effect of mobile phone on work life balance 1) Negative effect National Institute of Labour Studies, Australia published a research on tethering effect of mobile phone on work life balance. In this study they interviewed various filed workers depending upon occupation like electrician, estate agents, trade persons and ITC workers (Lowry Moskos, 2005). In this research all field workers explained their personal experience stating that how mobile phone impact their work life balance. Most of the ITC workers and estate agents said that there personal time were occupied due to mobile phone. Estate agents shared their personal experience and said that mobile phone interrupted his home life. For example, their mobile phone rung at midnight or early in the morning regarding property queries. One estate agent admitted that his wife hates his mobile phone when it rings in the night. He also proposed that his small childrens also get disturbed due to mobile phone in the night (Lowry Moskos, 2005). More than six electricians said that they have work based mobile phones and they can be fined on ignoring the work related calls. These penalties may include lost wages, and warnings from managers (Lowry Moskos, 2005). According to National Institute of Labour Studies not only field workers suffered from work related calls in night but their partners also get disturbed. One electrician said that he gets two or three work related calls in the night and he is tolerated to these calls. But his partner felt hard to sleep again after getting disturbed and lack of sleep affecting his job performance (Lowry Moskos, 2005). For all of the surveyed occupational groups mobile phone brings some emotional problems into their personal life. However no one agreed that mobile phone reduces their job performance and productivity. 2) Positive effect National Institute of Labour Studies also found some positive effects of mobile phone according to field workers. Some ITC workers described that they were beneficiated by mobile phone (Lowry Moskos, 2005). Some positive effects described in survey are as follows, Field workers can contact with their family even if they are on work. Some electrician said they can hide behind mobile phone like they can pretend that they are busy in meeting or they are driving a car. According to estate agent they can contact with many clients on mobile phone when it is impossible to meet them personally. All interviewees agreed that they can easily contact with their subordinates and managers while field work.

Overview over Religion :: essays research papers

Overview of Religion In this tutorial, you will learn about the religious experience in general and some of its variations around the world. The focus will be on the types of religious beliefs and religious leaders, especially in small-scale societies. An exploration of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, or any other major religion is beyond the scope of this tutorial. The approach taken is that of cultural relativity--religious practices or beliefs are not evaluated in terms of their "correctness" or "sophistication" but, rather, in terms of their function within the societies that maintain them. What is Religion? A religion is a system of beliefs usually involving the worship of supernatural forces or beings. Religious beliefs provide shape and meaning to one's perception of the universe. In other words, they provide a sense of order in what might otherwise be seen as a chaotic existence. Religions also provide understanding and meaning for inexplicable events such as a loved one being killed in an earthquake or some other unpredictable force of nature. For most religious people, their beliefs about the supernatural are at the very core of their world views. Importance of Rituals Symbolic objects used in Christian rituals The performance of rituals is an integral part of all religions. Rituals are stylized and usually repetitive acts that take place at a set time and location. They almost always involve the use of symbolic objects, words, and actions. For example, going to church on Sunday is a common religious ritual for Christians around the world. It usually requires the wearing of somewhat different clothing and interacting with others in a particular manner in a sacred location. At the heart of this experience is a sequence of traditional ritual acts that symbolically represent aspects of the life, teachings, and death of Jesus. Maya Temple in Guatemala built on a high pyramid base to make it a sacred location Most religious rituals are performed in special places and under special conditions, such as in a dedicated temple or at a sacred spot. This is an intentional separation between the secular and the sacred. By being removed from the ordinary world, the sacred acts are enhanced for the believers--the separation makes the rituals more effective. Only allowing initiated people to participate in religious rituals also can have the same effect. Religious ritual reinforces the basic tenets of religion. For instance, the "partaking of the host" in the Catholic mass is a symbolic participation in the "last supper" of Jesus and, by extension, an affirmation of the acceptance of his teachings.